Where in the World Are Underwater Forests?

Underwater forests are found along coastlines on nearly every continent, stretching up from the seafloor in both temperate and, to a lesser extent, tropical waters. They flourish wherever light can reach the seabed and where nutrients, cool water and good attachment surfaces are available. These marine forests are ecological cousins to the forests on land that store wood and biomass.

Some of the most famous kelp-forest and underwater-forest locations include:

• California and the Pacific Northwest (USA & Canada): Giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) and bull kelp form towering forests along the coasts of California, Oregon, Washington, British Columbia and Alaska. Marine protected areas such as the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary are classic destinations for kelp diving.
• Chile and Patagonia: Extensive kelp forests cling to rocky shorelines and fjords along the Humboldt Current, providing habitat for sea lions, otters and countless fish species in one of the world’s most productive marine regions.
• Southern Ocean “Kelp Highways”: Vast kelp forests thrive in the frigid waters between the southern tip of South America and Antarctica, as well as around sub-Antarctic islands, creating migration corridors and feeding grounds for marine mammals and seabirds.
• South Africa and Namibia: Along the Benguela Current, cold, nutrient-rich upwelling supports dense kelp forests that protect shorelines and supply food and shelter for abalone, lobsters and reef fish.
• Australia & New Zealand: While coral reefs dominate tropical northern Australia, temperate southern coasts support extensive underwater forests of kelp and other macroalgae, creating a striking contrast to the coral reefs found further north.
• North Atlantic & Northern Europe: Kelp forests carpet rocky coastlines in Norway, Scotland, Ireland and parts of the Baltic and North Seas, forming critical nursery grounds for commercial fish and shellfish.

The healthiest, most productive underwater forests are typically found in areas with cold, nutrient-rich upwelling. These conditions support rapid growth of kelp and associated seaweeds. Strong ocean currents and wave action also help by continuously delivering fresh nutrients and oxygen while preventing sediment from smothering the holdfasts and blades.

What Is a Kelp Forest? Structure, Growth and “Underwater Trees”

Kelp forests are built primarily from several species of large brown algae, including giant kelp, bull kelp and sugar kelp. These macroalgae can grow astonishingly fast in cold oceans—some species can add more than two feet (60 cm) of length per day in ideal conditions, making them among the fastest-growing primary producers on Earth.

Although kelp is not a true plant, it has a surprisingly tree-like structure:

• Holdfast: A root-like “anchor” that grips onto rocks or other hard surfaces on the seafloor. Unlike tree roots, holdfasts do not absorb water or nutrients; they simply secure the kelp against waves and storms.
• Stipe: A flexible, stem-like structure that connects the holdfast to the blades and helps the kelp sway without breaking in strong currents.
• Blades: Leaf-like fronds that capture sunlight for photosynthesis. In a mature forest, blades form a dense canopy near the surface, creating dappled light conditions below similar to a shaded woodland.
• Gas-filled bladders (pneumatocysts): Small, buoyant floats that lift the blades toward the surface so they can harvest sunlight efficiently.

Many kelp species are perennial, persisting for multiple years, while others behave more like annuals that grow, reproduce and die back within a single year. Seasonal storms can tear away sections of kelp, but as long as the holdfast remains, new fronds can regrow and rebuild the forest canopy.

Kelp Forest Wildlife: Life in the Underwater Canopy

Kelp forests are biodiversity hotspots. Their complex structure creates numerous micro-habitats—trunks, mid-canopy, and surface canopy—similar to the vertical layers of a land forest. This three-dimensional habitat supports:

• Fish: Rockfish, wrasse, cod, kelp bass and many schooling species use kelp forests as nurseries and feeding grounds.
• Invertebrates: Abalone, sea urchins, crabs, sea stars, nudibranchs and countless other invertebrates graze on kelp blades, epiphytes and detritus.
• Marine mammals: Sea otters, seals, sea lions and even whales hunt, rest or raise young in and around kelp forests.
• Birds: Seabirds and shorebirds forage among floating kelp rafts, feeding on small fish and invertebrates.

In healthy systems, predators such as sea otters keep kelp-grazing urchins in check. Where top predators have been removed, urchins can overgraze kelp, creating “urchin barrens” devoid of forest—just as overbrowsing deer can strip foliage from land-based forests and reforestation projects.

Blue Carbon: How Kelp Forests Help Fight Climate Change

Like trees, kelp and other seaweeds use photosynthesis to convert sunlight, carbon dioxide and nutrients into organic matter, releasing oxygen as a by-product. This makes underwater forests powerful blue-carbon sinks that complement land-based tree carbon projects.

Key climate and carbon benefits of kelp forests include:

• Rapid biomass production: Kelp’s extraordinary growth rates mean it can lock up large amounts of carbon in a relatively short period, much like a fast-growing timber plantation of bamboo or hybrid poplar.
• Blue-carbon storage: A portion of detached kelp sinks into deep water or becomes buried in coastal sediments, where its carbon can be stored for decades to centuries.
• Oxygen production: During sunny, calm days, kelp blades may be covered with tiny bubbles of oxygen. These streams of bubbles rise to the ocean surface, where they burst and release oxygen into the atmosphere.

Kelp forests can produce many times more oxygen and biomass per acre than typical land forests, making them an important piece of the global carbon and oxygen cycle, even though their carbon accounting is still being refined by scientists.

Can Kelp Forests Be Planted Like a Tree Plantation?

Yes. Kelp forests can be artificially seeded and restored in a way that is conceptually similar to planting trees in a managed forest. The process, often grouped under the term mariculture or seaweed farming, involves:

• Collecting or cultivating kelp spores and young sporophytes in controlled hatchery tanks.
• Encouraging early growth on twine, ropes or small substrates that act like “underwater nursery pots.”
• Transplanting these seeded lines or substrates to prepared sites on the seafloor, moorings or long-line systems in coastal waters.
• Managing grazers (like urchins), monitoring water quality and protecting the site from destructive fishing practices until the forest is established.

As climate change, coastal pollution and overfishing damage natural kelp forests, restoration and mariculture projects are becoming increasingly important. Kelp farms can produce food, animal feed, fertilizers and bioplastics while also offering coastal protection, habitat and carbon capture benefits—similar to how land-based tree plantations can supply timber, jobs and climate benefits.

Do Kelp Forests Produce Oxygen?

Just like trees on land, kelp forests are prolific oxygen producers. During daylight, kelp uses photosynthesis to convert dissolved CO₂ into sugars, releasing oxygen back into the surrounding water. The process is visible as countless tiny bubbles that form on kelp blades and rise to the surface.

While estimates vary by region and species, kelp and other marine plants contribute significantly to the oxygen we breathe and to the stability of marine ecosystems. When viewed alongside terrestrial forests and agroforestry systems, underwater forests are a vital part of the planet’s “green lungs.”

Threats to Underwater Forests

Despite their resilience, kelp forests are vulnerable to a combination of human and environmental pressures:

• Warming oceans and marine heatwaves that stress kelp and favor warm-water competitors.
• Coastal pollution and sedimentation that reduce water clarity and smother holdfasts.
• Overfishing of top predators, which can trigger urchin population explosions and overgrazing of kelp.
• Physical damage from trawling, dredging and coastal development.

Conservation efforts—such as marine protected areas, restoration projects and sea otter reintroductions—are helping to rebuild some degraded forests. Globally, underwater forests are increasingly recognized alongside reforestation and tree-planting as essential nature-based climate solutions.

Experiencing Kelp Forests: Diving into an Underwater Woodland

For anyone who loves forests, oceans or climate solutions, exploring an underwater forest is a once-in-a-lifetime experience. Cold-water scuba diving and snorkeling in regions such as California, British Columbia, Norway, South Africa or southern Australia offer the chance to:

• Swim through towering “trunks” of kelp that reach from the seafloor to the surface.
• Observe schools of fish weaving through the blades and sea lions or seals darting between kelp pillars.
• Witness the play of filtered sunlight as it flickers down through the canopy, just as it does in a mature forest ecosystem on land.

The world’s underwater forests are a vital and fascinating part of our blue planet. From the towering kelp forests of the Pacific to the hidden macroalgae gardens of the North Atlantic, these ecosystems provide habitat, food, coastal protection, carbon storage and oxygen for a vast array of marine life—and, indirectly, for us. Whether you are a marine biologist, climate-conscious investor, nature enthusiast or simply someone who loves the ocean, kelp forests remind us that “planting forests” can happen under the waves as well as on land.

Underwater Forests